A Personal Learning Experience

Before this class started, my thoughts on the history of jazz were abstract and limited. I wanted to take this class because I did not know why I seemed to like some jazz songs as opposed to others. I simply thought of jazz as one style of music that originated in the South in the early 1900’s. The only familiar name to me was Louis Armstrong and I figured he became famous with his supposed talent with a well-known jazz instrument, the saxophone. That assumption was clearly wrong, since he primarily played with the trumpet and cornet (Gioia 49, 56). Knowing my brief amount of knowledge on the subject, I decided to read in advance, the first hundred pages of Gioia’s The History of Jazz book. It was difficult to keep track of the vast information that was given. There were several artists’ names and musical technical terms that were completely foreign to me. I was unable to grasp most of the key concepts that Gioia was trying to portray. This was partly due to the fact that I had not listened to any of the music.

I have learned that the development of jazz has the inherent ability to grow by adopting musical idioms and reflecting the social context of its surroundings. This ability stems from one of the indigenous traditions of African music, Call and Response. This social concept takes on several different forms. Put simply, this ability to react to one’s environment by different methods is one of the most critical aspects of jazz.

Musicians reacted with each other to create a conversation and emotional communication within their music. This is transcended in songs such as Duke Ellington’s Creole Love Call (Gioia 121-122) and Dizzy Gillespie’s “Salt Peanuts” (Lecture 2/19). Musicians responding to each other to create unique rhythms through improvisation show a great deal of talent. Jazz songs can send powerful messages too, as seen by Billie Holiday’s “Strange Fruit” (Lecture 2/14) and Alan Lomax’s work song, “Take This Hammer” (Lecture 1/17). “Strange Fruit” calls against the racial injustices of lynching in the South and “Take This Hammer” rebels against the oppression of slave labor. These are two of countless examples showing racism as a social discourse (an important influence on the expression of jazz musicians) in American music. Racial segregation and oppression often propelled musicians to express themselves through music. Jazz music can also surmount to any degree of emotional communication, from the blues, Miles Davis’ “Blue Room” to the upbeat swing song, “Sing Sing Sing” by Benny Goodman.

A fundamental aspect of Call and Response in jazz is its ability to evoke dance and entertain its audiences. This cross-fertilization between music and dance stems from the African tradition of vital aliveness in performance and can be seen throughout the history of jazz. This communication between the performer and audience allows music to change and improve, which also provided a means of social integration. As early as the 1900’s, New Orleans saw dance movements become popular with jazz. “In addition to concert and march music, the ensembles also knew a range of quadrilles, polkas, schottisches, mazurkas, two-steps, and other popular dance styles.” (Gioia 33). Most of these dances were European though. Before 1910, mainstream social dancing in America relied primarily on European dances such as waltzes, gallops, polkas, jigs, and quadrilles (Gioia 106). Often these dances would be carried out in the early 1920’s at the Dreamland Ballroom, Lincoln Gardens, and the Sunset Café, which were considered sanctuaries of dance and music in Chicago (Lecture 1/29). By 1914, new dance steps were becoming widespread, often through the playing of jazz music.

On a more general level, the styles of jazz reflect the historical and cultural context of a city that it developed in. This could be considered a culmination of call and responses from individuals to their surroundings. This signifies an overall trend among them. New Orleans, the birthplace of jazz, fostered a blend of African traditional music (work songs, blues, and spirituals) with European styles of music. New Orleans as a melting pot of ethnic diversity and economic trade provided the proper environment to formulate the new genre of music, Jazz (Gioia 30). Once people migrated northward, jazz became a significant role in the music industry (by providing incentives of financial gain and fame for musicians) in cities such as Chicago and New York. Jazz’s shift towards Swing in the 1930’s came from the “popular music and dance that were sweeping in New York” (Gioia 107). Swing in New York provided entertainment to a large amount of people when they really needed it, during the Great Depression. Bebop, the rebellion against swing was also a call and response. It rejected most of the values that swing represented such as the big band, fame, and wealth. Bebop tended towards a more sophisticated approach and regarded itself as a highly respected style of art. It was more reflective than it was danceable. The tiny spaces in these cafés where Bebop was played reflect its style of small bands (Miles 55).

The ability of jazz to host interaction between musicians and their audiences with communication, dance, and emotion allowed it to change and transcend American culture. I am glad I have taken this course because now I can fully enjoy this culturally rich and diverse genre of American music. I even discovered my favorite jazz artist and style, Miles Davis and cool jazz.

An Authentic Sound

Thelonious Monk grew up in the proper environment that was needed for him to develop his musical talent. This place, San Juan Hill, was a heavily populated, diverse, and racially tense neighborhood in New York City. As said by Monk himself, one could walk over to the next block and end up in another country (Kelly 19).  Race riots that occurred (such as the one in May, 1917) resembled a war between country boundaries. However, patriotism was no longer a separating factor for people here; instead it was language and culture. Violence became more of an individualized matter. People would personally insult others on the street. As Monk witnessed himself, “the Southern blacks called West Indians ‘monkey chasers,’ and we often referred to Southern blacks as ‘possum eaters.’” (Kelly 18). A Chinese restaurant on 59^th and Columbus called Far East would not allow African-Americans to dine inside. Victims of this racial prejudice would retaliate by standing outside chanting “Chinaman, Chinaman, eat dead rats.” (Kelly 19). These racial tensions affected the daily lives of those who lived there. This was reflected in the works of Thelonious Monk, who expressed himself as an individual.

San Juan Hill was saturated with just as much violence as it was with musical culture. This neighborhood had a strong sense of community that would often have people bound together through music. Monk’s mother, Barbara, made sure her children went to church, where music was often played. They attended Union Baptist where Monk would learn various hymns which inspired him at an early age. Barbara had a profound influence on her son’s life by exposing him to the city’s rich culture such as Edwin Franko Goldman’s sixty-piece orchestra that performed in Central Park and the Columbus Hill Neighborhood Center (Kelly 22). In addition, without the strong sense of community of San Juan Hill, “a lady” may have never been compelled to give a piano to the Monk family, which forever altered the life of Thelonious (Kelly 24).

Thelonious Monk did not exhibit dominative signs of social activism. This is shown by his statement, “There’s no reason why I should go through that Black Power shit now. I guess everybody in New York had to do that, right?” (Kelly 19). He would primarily influence society by fighting against wrongdoings on an individual level. This character trait of him is seen when at the age of sixteen, he stood up against a group of kids who were about to attack his soon-to-be friend, Sonny (Kelly 33).  

With America’s rationale in fighting for democracy in WWII, people quickly became aware of their own hypocrisy. There was still segregation and racial tension in society. People would often protest against this unfairness and music proved to be one of the few peaceful means of achieving this. For example, Lionel Hampton claims that the song “Hey Pa Pa Rebob” signified the desire to destroy prejudice and discrimination (Lecture 2/28). However, Monk has a passive-aggressive, yet non-violent style of music. As seen in his song “Blue Monk” he plays his notes sharply and aggressively. He defies normal conventions of piano playing by crossing his hands on the keyboard for a good amount of time. (Youtube, Thelonious Monk - Blue Monk).  Monk would distinguish himself further in an ironic way by standing up next to the piano and let others play their solos. He would even set his elbow on the keyboard to create loud noises that would rival those of a cymbal. (Discussion 2/26).

In 1958, Monk was arrested for unintentionally breaking a Jim Crow law that was still active in the state of Delaware. He was confronted by the police just for being a black man out late with a white woman and an expensive car. Monk rebelled with every ounce of his soul. Unfortunately, this did lead to violence and his arrest. This “strategy” against his detainment had no sign of submission. “If they told him to sit down, he stood up. If they told him to say something, he said nothing” (Kelly 254). This incident deeply affected him as an individual and led him to act in this defying manner. His ability to maintain the style of his music (by not responding to racial conflict) shows his strength and ability to transcend racial tensions.

Monk’s art that epitomized modernism was capable of fostering a unique community. It was a bohemian community which emphasized the artist, intellectual, and avant-garde. Monk was even seen as a religious or sacred figure by his listeners. According to his audience, he had an abstract quality and authentic Negro sound (Kelly 232). His music defined modern jazz. 

The Swing Era - A Progressive Time Hidden within the Great Depression

Societal tensions were on the rise in the 1930’s for American history. The Great Depression financially victimized not just a vast population of U.S. citizens, but also the foundations of capitalism itself. In terms of racial discourse, people claimed that desegregation and miscegenation would begin to perfuse itself onto society and destroy its moral integrity. In other words, people were content with the status quo, a separate but equal mentality that determined much of society’s structure. At this time however, there was pressure coming from the opposite end. Radicals such as John Hammond spoke their minds, criticized those opposing progressive measures, and influenced the political system. As racial tensions have always existed in the history of jazz, it was not until economic, political and technological advancements during the Swing Era that race has become an explicit topic in the development of American music.

Until Benny Goodman’s performance at Carnegie Hall in 1938, jazz players were solely regarded as a musical underclass (Gioia 138). This musician known as the King of Swing essentially made “jazz legit in one night” (Goodman at Carnegie Hall 1938). Jazz started to become an accepted genre of music in popular American culture. Goodman was capable of garnishing this success by the simple fact that he was white. He, along with other white band leaders, were readily accepted by mainstream America (Gioia 142). Nonetheless, black jazz musicians such as Chick Webb (an energetic drummer) and Duke Ellington were able to make a name of themselves.

Commercialism plays an intricate role in the development of Swing and racial desegregation. The emerging “music business” took a nose dive in the Great Depression and did whatever it took to survive. Generally, musicians did not want to be politically segmented and focused on expanding their audience (Lecture 2/14). For example, Ellington was criticized by John Hammond for using his musical abilities to only promote his commercial success. This artist played at the Cotton Club, where blacks were unable to attend. Ellington did not speak out against racial injustices and focused mainly on his career. What gave people like Hammond the authority to criticize others was the instability of the American economy and government. A prime example of this would be the Scottsboro Case in 1931, indicating that radicals had an influence on all levels of government. Capitalism was on a sharp decline and people began to criticize whatever they see displeasing.

With the end of prohibition and the radio eclipsing the vitrola as a source of music, entertainment from speakeasies and dance halls moved into American homes. The radio’s success specifically during the Depression is partly due to the fact that it was “free once you buy one.” On a grand scale, this did not help musicians during the Depression. With the radio, just a few bands could perform for countless listeners that previously required thousands of musicians (Gioia 136). Although it certainly helped a select few jazz musicians become wealthy and famous in a short matter of time. A more important implication of these magical airwaves was the fact that its audience was unaware of the musicians’ ethnicity. It was an anonymous performance that effaced predisposed judgment of music based on race.

Political and economic implications from the Great Depression are responsible for racial issues becoming explicit and affecting the course of history for jazz in the 1930’s. When capitalism hit an all-time low, people were unafraid to criticize social injustices. On the other hand, there was opposition to the very idea of ethnic integration and miscegenation in society. The Swing Era marked a time of progression, where musicians began to play in previously segregated theatres, and the radio which created a popular culture with race having less involvement in one’s taste in music.

Harlem, a Bridge to Modernity

By the early 1920’s, the center of the jazz world shifted northward from New Orleans to Chicago and New York City. Prominent jazz musicians left their traditional lives in hopes of a better life, freedom, and financial security that the North appeared to offer. Between 1916 and 1919 a vast population shift towards the North known as the Great Migration took place due to a combination of historical factors such as industrialization, halted immigration, and soldiers leaving vacancy of jobs to fight in World War I. Jazz started to leave its ragtime, marching band, and ensemble emphasis and tended towards a soloist style with smaller bands and more piano usage which served as an important link between classic European high culture and new Black musical innovation.

At this time, New York City became a newly established landmark of Democracy, human intellect, and profound assimilation of culture. Harlem, a “sharper color in the kaleidoscope of New York” is where jazz owes much of its prominence to over that of Chicago (Survey Graphic). Visually undistinguishable from the rest of the concrete jungle of New York City, Harlem served uniquely as a “laboratory of great race [and class] welding” and a conglomeration of a cultural elite (Survey Graphic). It is this combination of the African traditions of southern country people and the European traditions of Creoles that formulated jazz (Johnson 29). A full spectrum of human expression resided in this area as poets, writers, artists, musicians, and historians came to participate in this renaissance. It is rightfully called the Harlem Renaissance due to its outpour of intellectual genius, which emerged by finding its “proper context, its proper environment, and its proper audience” (Lecture 1/19). Harlem became the proper environment to a greater span of people due to deep social integration. Harlem based musicians were taking inspiration from the South and West, which in turn, created a competition within jazz styles which furthered its diversity, an important concept for the later upbringing of Swing (Henderson 103). Those of differing financial status, race, and religious affiliation were no longer inhibited from creating high art. At the start of the Swing Era, New York also played an important role commercializing and marketing culture on a national scale. For this reason, New York has a greater importance to the history of jazz and its ability to become a world renowned musical genre of human achievement.

To evaluate the importance of one city over another, it is crucial to recognize the influence that the great city of Chicago had on jazz history in comparison to Harlem. Chicago had its own degree of social integration which leaned towards commercialism. As such, Chicago’s accomplishments in terms of jazz music are more tangible than that of Harlem’s. Chicago enjoyed its economic splendor during the roaring twenties, and produced the right environment to expose some of the most influential jazz musicians of all time, The Austin High School Gang (a prime example of white appropriation of black music), and Louis Armstrong. However, Chicago’s racially segregated walls looked opaque in comparison to Harlem’s. Chicago was racially divided; blacks were prohibited from living on the northern side. It is important to note that in Harlem, Duke Ellington was capable of organizing a black band that catered to a white audience at the well-known Cotton club (Lecture 2/12). This artist, best representing this fast pace of changing culture, became an important figure by intelligently responding to his audience, which exemplified Bahkin’s Dialogic that the artist must be able to communicate with the audience and react with the environment to succeed. He was able to market himself with his agent, Mills, effectively, thereby significantly contributing to the spread of popular culture. Similarly, James P. Johnson and his stride piano style contributed to the emergence of swing and modern musical expression through mass media. Unfortunately this did not carry over to Fletcher Henderson (featuring Louis Armstrong) who tended to create composed music that did not evoke dancing.

Harlem was faced with duality, the reputation of being a high renaissance center point as well as being a decaying slum. In other words, “The Harlem Renaissance created an ideology, a cultural context for jazz but the Harlem of rent parties and underground economies created music.” (Gioia 94). Despite of this poverty lurking into the streets of Harlem, music from this part of society was still making its way into high culture of society. Jazz musicians would play for these rent parties, but also for the dance clubs and halls.

It was New York’s shift towards modernity that allowed Jazz to become what it is today, a classic. The intellectual crucible of Harlem created the ideology for a society to welcome genius, no matter who it came from. Through New York, jazz and swing styles of music were nationalized on a larger scale in comparison to the influences of Chicago. Chicago’s commercial success and superstars had a significant impact, but did not make jazz universal.

Origination of Jazz in New Orleans

Unique historical influences led to the emergence of jazz music in New Orleans. The city was founded in 1817 by the French at a strategic geographical location to allow its economic prosperity. Located at the mouth of the Mississippi River, New Orleans attracted people from a variety of places to obtain a share of its commercial success. This economic engine of power is responsible for the population’s diversity which in turn, led to a more open-minded and tolerant society, allowing a higher degree of freedom for musical expression and innovation. For example, French Catholicism had a considerable influence on the upbringing of jazz. The Catholic views on slavery were much more lenient in comparison to English rule. Slaves had the right to marry, own property, and buy their own freedom. Unlike in other American cities, slaves were allowed to express themselves in weekly musical gatherings known as Congo Squares. After the Civil War, slavery was abolished and greatly expanded this freedom, the time when ragtime and blues music was forming. Towards the beginning of the 20th century, New Orleans had become an established melting pot that allowed a blurring of these musical genres which was essential for the creation of jazz music (Gioia 33). As stated by Gioia, jazz may have never been developed without the incredible passion of brass bands in New Orleans. Jazz was not just played in New Orleans. However, what sets this city apart from others is the fact that brass bands were playing for almost every type of social event and their music permeated New Orleans social life on all levels (Gioia 32-33). Another role in the development of Jazz was black Creole culture, a prime example of fusing European and African societies. Although Creoles of color refused to associate themselves with Black society, they were soon force to by the Louisiana Legislative Code in 1894. Creoles of color were skilled at European classics and reading music. However, due to new legislation later known to be the Jim Crow laws, Creoles of Color were stripped from there intermediate social position. If they decided to continue to compose music to make a living, they were forced to compete against less educated and boisterous black bands within their new social environment. People were blatantly denied equality in a legally “free” country where “all men are created equal.” This unjust counterrevolution is largely responsible for several American mindsets of double consciousness (devised by W.E.B Du Bois). After this legislation, Creoles especially had a difficult time associating themselves with either American, African, or European culture. It created self-identity conflicts and anxiety but also innovation and improvisation. This has a strong tie to one of the fundamental aspects of jazz, its ability to express emotions in more the one interpretation and improvise to survive according to one’s environment. It is also important to note some of the first initial players of jazz music and their influences. Gioia discusses Buddy Bolden, the “elusive father of jazz.” His musical talent and personality led him to be one of the most renowned players of that time. However, there are currently no known recordings of his music which makes it difficult to attribute him to be the founder of jazz. Jelly Roll Morton on the other hand, was the first person to proclaim himself as the first jazz musician. It is also a stretch to state that Morton is an original source of jazz music. From Gioia’s text, it is evident that he was a prominent figure in the development of jazz, but may not be the true founder due to the fact that he started playing his music roughly ten years after Buddy Bolden. Even more influential was the formation of the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, an ensemble of white musicians. This band was the first to make jazz commercialized by northern record companies. Some may evaluate their commercial success to substantiate the claim that this band started jazz but it is also important to notice that they also had a prevalent influence. The Original Dixieland Jazz Band not only spread jazz music to the North (Chicago and New York) but also internationally (to England and France.) Although this band was a prominent figure in New Orleans jazz history, the mere fact that New Orleans was located at the mouth of the Mississippi River may be the single most important reason why Jazz emerged there instead of other American cities.